CLIMATE & ENVIRONMENT
Sinking cities: How climate change and unplanned urbanization have threatened lives in Nepal
ASMITA KHADKA
September 9, 2022
CLIMATE & ENVIRONMENT
Sinking cities:
How climate change and unplanned urbanization have threatened lives in Nepal
ASMITA KHADKA
September 9, 2022
Cover photo: Google Earth Pro.
Geeta Dhakal’s family purchased a parcel of land in Kathmandu’s Kapan neighborhood twenty years ago, when the area was known for its lush green paddy fields. In Milan Chowk area, concrete houses were a rarity.
Over time, the area grew in leaps and bounds. As people like Dhakal migrated from rural to urban areas, new concrete buildings sprang up in the formerly verdant fields. “We fear that severe rain will sweep our home away,” she said, adding that she now regrets the land investment her family made. “It’s as if we had poured our money into a river,” she said. The Dhakals were forced to migrate to Kathmandu following the Maoist insurgency that was ravaging the countryside.
Her sentiment is echoed by 45-year-old Chandreshwari Shrestha. “Once it rains, the rainwater spills over to the road and fills the sewer pipes,” she said. The road transforms into a river, sweeping away everything in its path. It damages both sewage and the road. The aftermath is even worse, according to her. “The foul smell from the sewage and the dust make our life unbearable,” she said.
Until a few decades ago, Kathmandu Valley, historically one of the most fertile agricultural regions of Nepal, not only had a vast expanse of verdant fields but also allowed its many rivers, streams, and rivulets to run freely. Its produce was enough to sustain the population, both in the cities and the outskirts or Kanth in the colloquial language.
Following the restoration of democracy in 1990 and during the 10-year Maoist insurgency, a steady influx of migrants from rural Nepal transformed the valley into a concrete jungle that many increasingly feel unlivable. In the last 30 years, its population increased from 400,000 to four million, making it one of the fastest-growing cities in South Asia.
Settlements in the valley inundate during the monsoon season.
Photo: Kripa Shrestha
People have suffered greatly as a result of tremendous urban expansion, which has inflated real estate prices. A year ago, a 10-year-old boy fell to his death after a manhole was left open amidst the floods in Kapan. A host of government agencies—Kathmandu Valley Development Authority, Department of Urban Development and Building Construction, Sewage Management Division (Dhal Mahashakha) of Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL), Lalitpur, National Disaster Risk and Reduction Authority—are entrusted with dealing with urban floods and sewage system. But their attempts are hamstrung by poor coordination and negligence.
Urban planner Sanjay Uprety said haphazard development of settlements in Kapan was behind the floods in the area. “We abandoned the basics of urban planning, in which we must take into account population growth and geography,” he said. “Earlier, people built houses on higher land. There were plenty of open spaces. Though we didn’t have a sewage system, there were natural outlets for drainage.” It ensured the recharge of groundwater, he added. “But we blocked the outlets that absorb the runoff. The growth of settlement has become unsustainable,” he said.
A view of an asphalt road built on what was previously a confluence of two streams, Yagyamati and Changucha. Photo: Asmita Khadka
Once Upon a River
Satellite images show two streams—Yagyamati and Chankhuwa Khola—flowing across Kapan’s fertile floodplains. The area was yet to become the sprawling settlement of today. But after 2010, the area grew in leaps and bounds.
Kapan area, which was an open field until two decades ago, is now completely covered with concrete. The satellite images used in this are taken from Google Earth Pro.
Asphalt roads have now replaced Yagyamati and Chankhuwa Khola. Experts have said the loss of the streams caused the inundation of the area during monsoon season. Rainwater from both sides flows into Milan Chock, a square located between Budhanilkantha Municipality Ward no 10 and Kathmandu Metropolitan City’s six and seven wards.
About four years ago, soil and garbage began to accumulate on the hum pipes that had replaced the two streams. The authorities had failed to repair the drainage system. The water that flowed from the surrounding settlements began to accumulate and eventually overflowed, causing huge floods in the area.
A view of Milan Chowk after Kapan area was flooded. Photo: Asmita Khadka
While we couldn’t find data on the number of houses in Kapan and Jorpati, the valley is home to 720,000 houses including 450,000 in Kathmandu, about 200,000 in Lalitpur and about 70,000 in Bhaktapur, according Kathmandu Valley Development Authority. The majority of the houses are made of concrete.
Buildings and concrete structures built from 2002 to 2011 in Kathmandu.
Source: National Land Cover Monitoring, Nepal Government.
Climate scientist Sreekamal Dwivedi said the concretization of the land means the water flow has shifted dramatically. “This shift has exacerbated the risk of urban floods,” he said. “Water discharge has changed dramatically as a result of uncontrolled urbanization,” he said. “Earlier, the rainwater got soaked and there was minimal outflow. The amount of runoff flowing now has risen. It means that as soon as it rains, the runoff will become a flood.”
Jorpati area near Narayantar bridge has been completely covered by buildings and concrete structures within two decades. Image Source: Google Earth Pro
A Climate Catastrophe
Rapid urban growth has led cities to high-risk flood zones and exposed emerging cities to flood hazards, according to a World Bank report, which analysed data from 1985 to 2015. “Driven by their rapidly growing economies and urban centers, settlement growth in high-risk zones is outpacing growth in safe areas by a large margin. Rather than reducing risk, current urban development patterns are contributing to aggravating these risks,” the study said. “Developing countries are driving the recent growth of flood exposure: 36,500 square kilometers of settlements were built in the world’s highest-risk zones since 1985–82 percent of which are in low- and middle-income countries,” the World Bank study said.
Climate change has caused intensity and an increase of heatwaves, floods, fire and storms around the globe and would get far worse unless the carbon dioxide emission is controlled, according to an August 9, 2021 report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
The report’s authors have warned extreme weather events such as floods and drought will be exacerbated by climate change, causing serious concern for South Asia and South East Asia, which depend on monsoons. “Continued global warming is projected to further intensify the global water cycle, including its variability, global monsoon precipitation and the severity of wet and dry events,” the report said.
Climate change has caused changes in precipitation patterns in recent years. The local air system and rain have contributed to an increase in heavy rains and sporadic rains, according to data from the Meteorological Forecast Division (MFD) of Nepal. Though the MFD is yet to study the links between rainfall patterns and urban floods, recent cases of heavy rains in a short period have caused urban flooding and inundation, said Indira Kandel, a senior meteorologist at the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology.
“Although there has been no change in the daily, monthly, and yearly rainfall patterns, we have recently faced flash floods caused by heavy rains in a short period,” she said. “If it doesn’t rain this year, don’t expect the same next year. After it rains, anything can happen.” She said if it rains more than 30 millimeters in half an hour, Kathmandu will experience flash floods.
A research titled “Impact of Urbanisation and Climate Change on Urban Flooding: A Case study of the Kathmandu Valley” found that the capacity of open land to absorb water was declining in the valley. “Urban drainage systems are increasingly overburdened during extreme precipitation events, and are stretched to their limits by increasing populations,” the report said.
The study looked at the interaction between increasing urban runoff and flooding caused by increased imperviousness, as well as high rainfall events caused by climate change in the valley. The findings showed future climate change conditions combined with present urbanization will increase pluvial flooding. “There will be a 40 percent increase in the flooding amount considering the current and future climate for a 25-year return period. Furthermore, the urban drainage management infrastructure designed based on current climate conditions will not be able to cope under future climate conditions,” the study stated. The hazards will only grow, according to Inu Pradhan Salike, one of the authors. “As open spaces in Kathmandu dwindle, rainwater runs into the river via sewage,” she said. “Rivulets and catchment areas are flooded.”
Many experts blame the poor sewage system for the catastrophe.
As a result, places that never experienced flooding are now at risk of flooding during monsoons. Seventy-year-old Yagya Ratna Shakya of Patan attributed it to the devastation caused by the earthquake in 2015. “The earthquake not only damaged the houses, it also disrupted the sewage system,” he said. “The authorities failed to repair the damage.”
Patan is located on higher land, but concretization has hindered water drainage. “The rains have flooded the city’s alleys,” he said. ” Rainwater overflowed from sewage, like it did in Kapan, flooding the roads.” As a result, water accumulated in highly inhabited places such as Lagankhel, Mangal Bazaar, Kumaripati, and Bangalamukhi cannot enter the Bagmati River.
Workers build a sewage system near Maitidevi, an area that frequently experiences flooding during the monsoon season. Photo: Asmita Khadka
Prem Shrestha, an engineer at the Kathmandu Valley Development Authority, also blames the sewage system for the disaster. “The majority of the valley’s sewers are in disrepair. They are narrow and unrepaired,” he said. “Garbage that has accumulated on the road is carried away by rainwater and clogs the sewers. Inside the sewers, items such as helmets, rubbish bags, iron pieces, and even animal skeletons are discovered, obstructing the flow.”
Drains along the roads are mandatory as per the law. However, some roads are either narrow or filthy. Drains designed for past rainfalls are now incapable of handling heavy rains. They are not maintained by the authorities. As a result, the roads are waterlogged. Studies have shown that flood shortens the life of the road.
Loss and Damage
Although there is no study on how much damage urban floods have caused in Nepal, the neighboring country China has suffered $44.5 billion in damage due to urban floods in the last 20 years, according to Forbes. China’s urban flooding is seen as an example of a tragedy caused by fast urbanization and noncompliance with climate standards.
On August 10, 2022, heavy rainfalls overflowed the Manohara River that flows through Kathmandu and Bhaktapur, causing the settlements to inundate. The flood damaged property worth over 6.5 million rupees, according to Bhaktapur Metropolitan Police. Eighteen people have been killed in disasters in the Kathmandu Valley in the last five years, according to the valley police office.
In Kathmandu, the flood damaged property worth 17.2 million rupees. In Bhaktapur, a total of 7.68 million rupees was lost to the disaster. In the fiscal year 2075-76, the flood damaged property worth 15.7 million rupees in Kathmandu.
There were 57 incidents of flooding in Kathmandu between 1971 and 2019, with 42 persons killed and 13 injured, according to the data from the District Administration Office. The disasters affected over 2000 people in the period.
Experts are astounded by the magnitude and frequency of the calamity.
Dwivedi, the climate scientist, said it was just a matter of time until flooding causes havoc in Kathmandu. “Previously, flood deaths in Kathmandu were quite rare. We have yet to experience a major flood. But if we don’t treat it seriously, there will be major floods in the future,” he said, adding that the situation was caused by uncontrolled urbanization.
Another expert, Uprety, the associate professor at the Institute of Engineering, agrees. “We will pay a huge price for our own mistakes.”
The interactive map below shows flooded spots in the valley from 2011 to 2022. Click on the dots to view clips of flooded areas.
We identified and analyzed over 200+ photos and videos of flood from various social media platforms. Among them we successfully geolocated 59 frequently flooded areas.
How to fix it?
While concrete pipes (known as Hume pipes, they were designed by the Hume brothers in Australia) and box culverts are commonly used in road building, Saroj Karki, an engineer with the Ministry of Energy and Water Resources, believes it is improper to intrude on a waterway. “Water is mobile, and it will eventually flow into a river. Following heavy rain, the lower area is subjected to runoff pressure.” He suggested creating such structures based on local topography and projections of future floods. “Culverts should be built to reduce flood damage, not to intrude on streams,” he said.
On paper, earthquakes, floods, landslides, and fires are classified as disasters. Local bodies have been responsible for disaster response planning and execution since Nepal adopted a federal system of governance.
A host of laws and regulations including the Disaster Risk Reduction Act 2074, the Urban Planning and Development Act—govern the sector. With UNDP’s support, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority has identified land that poses multi-disaster risks.
But the laws are rarely implemented.
Box culvert being built over the tributary of Dhobikhola. Photo: Asmita Khadka
“We are aware of urban flood, but we don’t have strategies to deal with it,” said Surendra Mohan Shrestha, Director General of Urban Development and Building Construction Department. Upreti, the urban planner, recommended an integrated approach to tackle the disaster. “Despite many policies and legislations, there are no standards for coping with multi-disasters at the same time,” he said. “We cannot be disaster-free until we implement the laws and policies.”
The solution could be found in the valley’s ancient wisdom.
In his book, Hiti Pranali (Hiti System), which deals with the valley’s ancient water spout, author Padma Sundar Joshi, discusses the use of ponds to deal with floods. The alternative has become obsolete due to rapid urbanization. Yet rainwater harvesting and natural drainage could be the solution to urban flooding. “Floods will wreak havoc in the valley until it goes through the natural drainage,” he said. “The land use plan should be based on economic and technical capabilities. To meet this challenge, we must strictly enforce the laws and regulations.”
Experts recommended Japan’s underground tunnel system, which collects water from small and medium-sized rivers and transports it to a larger river. This has helped Tokyo cope with typhoon storms and moody rivers, according to a BBC report. Jiba Raj Pokharel, a scientist and former vice chancellor of Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, said a similar technology can be used to manage floods in the valley. “We may not be able to build new ponds, but we can empty the ponds in the dry season and collect water in the monsoon season,” he said. A 20 feet-wide and 4 feet deep pond in every four ropanis of land could prevent 30 percent of floods, he said. “We should find a natural solution to this problem.”
Inu Pradhan Salike of the IOE echoed Pokharel’s points. Most rainfall in Nepal occur in the four months of monsoon. But the concretization blocks the water from being soaked. “Some countries have temporarily built reservoirs and ponds to control floods,” she said. “We can do it by constructing temporary reservoirs in parks and empty spaces.” Another option is to clean and maintain the sewage system on a regular basis. She referred to Rio de Janeiro, a Brazilian city, and China’s sponge cities as examples.
Climate scientist Dwivedi said the government authorities must be prepared to reduce the risk of urban floods in Nepal. “While Kathmandu is a lost cause, we can learn from it and save other cities across the country,” he said. “Rainwater must be considered before planning any buildings. Plans for water drainage must be developed in order to limit the damage. Maps for houses and structures must be approved based on their rainwater management strategies,” he said. “It’s up to us whether to face the damage or to plan ahead of time.”
This investigative report was prepared under the Open Climate Reporting Initiative (OCRI) of the Center for Investigative Journalism, based in UK. The original version of this story was published in Ukeraa. Click here to read the story.
